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Songliao Basin
The Songliao Basin is the largest Mesozoic–Cenozoic continental petroleum basin with a dual-structure (lower fault and upper depression) in Northeast China, covering an area of 26×104 km2. The basin includes six primary structural units: central depression area, western slope area, northeastern uplift area, southeastern uplift area, northern dip area, and southwestern uplift area. During the formation and evolution, the Songliao Basin experienced 4 stages: thermal uplifting and rifting; rifting; depression; and shrinking and uplifting. The basement is Paleozoic and Pre-Paleozoic metamorphic rock, igneous rock and other rocks. Upwards, there are strata of faulting period (Lower Cretaceous Huoshiling Formation, Shahezi Formation and Yingcheng Formation), faulting–depression transition period (Lower Cretaceous Denglouku Formation), depression period (Lower Cretaceous Quantou Formation, and Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, Yaojia Formation, Nenjiang Formation, Sifangtai Formation and Mingshui Formation), and inversion period (Paleogene and Neogene). The sedimentary cover is mainly composed of Mesozoic and Cenozoic clastic rocks.
Fig. 1. (A) General Early Cretaceous stratigraphy with stratigraphic age of Songliao Basin. (B) Detailed stratigraphic column of the Fuyu oil layer in the central downwarp zone eastern area, showing sequence stratigraphy scheme, log data, lithologies, simplified relative lake-level change curve, and sedimentary environment from well c501
Tectonics
The basin is located on the Mongolia –North China plate within the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) (P.J. Wang et al., 2006 ).The CAOB formed by progressive subduction of the Paleo -Asian Ocean and amalgamation of terranes of different types and derivation , and is specifically marked by its massive juvenile crustal production during the Phanerozoic (Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2011). In a more regional context, the study area belongs to the mobile belt between the Siberian craton in the north and the Sino-Korean (North China) craton in the south. Pre- and syn-tectonic evolution of the Songliao basin was characterized by three successive tectonic stages including the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean during the Paleozoic, subduction and closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean during the Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic and the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean during Mesozoic –Cenozoic times (Wu et al., 2001).
Deep fault
The Songliao Basin is located in the Song-liao fault fold belt which belongs to the Tianshan-Qilian-Great Xing’an fault fold series, and there exist three crust cutting deep faults: the NE and NNE Sunwu-Shuangshen fault, Taikang-Beizhen fault and NW fault. In XJWZ fault depression, the Xuxi fault and Songxi fault firstly cut through the basement, then the strong geological tectonics activity and the followed magmatic activity cause the high geothermal field in XJWZ area. The deep fault could cause the corresponding rise of the moho surface and then make the upper mantle intrude into the crust, so the magma reservoir is formed in the crust, which make the whole basin have a high geothermal field. Besides, the radioactive substances exist in upper mantle ,the deep fault become a upwelling channels of the mantle source material and the heat supply center area of the radioactive substances.
Fig 2. Shallow–medium seismic section of northern Songliao Basin
Source Rocks
Two sets of source rocks, Qingshankou Formation and Nenjiang Formation, are developed in the Late Cretaceous of the Songliao Basin. The Nenjiang Formation source rocks have a low organic matter maturity to provide a limited oil generation capacity, so the shallow–medium petroleum mainly came from the Qingshankou Formation mature source rocks.
During the deposition of Qingshankou Formation, the first large-scale lake transgression event occurred in the Songliao Basin, forming a set of high-quality source rocks deposited in semi-deep to deep lake. The Qingshankou Formation source rocks are dominated by the dark shales in the first member of Qingshankou Formation (Qing 1 Member) and the middle and lower parts of the second member of Qingshankou Formation (Qing 2 Member). The main hydrocarbon generating material is the layered algae, and the organic matter type is mainly I–II1. The Ro value ranges from 0,7% to 1,3%, indicative of the mature to high mature stage with a great hydrocarbon generation potential. Specifically, the Qing 1 shale covers an area of 4,2×104 km2, with a thickness of 30–100 m, an average TOC of 2,36%, and an average hydrogen index (HI) of 750 mg/g. The Qing 2 shale covers an area of 2,8×104 km2, with a thickness of 60–230 m, an average TOC of 1.8% in the middle and lower parts, and an average HI of 630 mg/g.
Table 1. Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis parameters and TOC content of the Qing1 Member.
Note: The S1 peak value of Rock-Eval pyrolysis varies in a range of 1,02–21,22 mg HC/g rock in the lower part (4,8 mg on average) and 0,06–1,2 mg HC/g rock in the upper part (0,63 mg on average). The values of S2 range from 13,52 to 59,7 mg HC/g rocks (26,4 mg on average) in the lower part to 0.84–14.01 mg HC/g rocks (5,96 mg on average) in the upper part.
Fig 3. Source rock assessment graphic of the Qing1 Member: (A) HI values vs. Tmax values. (B) S1+S2 values vs. the content of TOC. (C) S1 values vs. the content of TOC.
Fig 4. Chromatograms depicting the terpenoid distribution (m/z 191) and steroids (m/z 217) in the saturated hydrocarbon fractions in the Qing1 Member from the Changling Sag. Gam = gammacerane. Samples A (A,B) and B (C,D) were gathered from Well T1.
The Qingshankou Formation source rocks are thick and wide, with high organic matter abundance and good organic matter type, and they are well preserved. The hydrocarbons generated from the mature source rocks, except the part retained in the formation itself, migrated upward to form the Heidimiao, Saertu, Putaohua and Gaotaizi oil reservoirs, and downward to form the Fuyu, Yangdachengzi and other oil reservoirs, providing sufficient petroleum sources for the shallow–medium strata in northern Songliao Basin.
Reservoirs
A good storage space is one of the key elements for petroleum accumulation. The northern Songliao Basin witnesses an alternation and supervision overlapping of multiple orders of sedimentary cycles, multiple sets of sedimentary facies belts, and multiple types of sand bodies vertically. The reservoir rocks are mainly sandstone, followed by argillaceous rocks, dolomitic rocks, etc.
The Heidimiao, Saertu and Putaohua oil reservoirs are conventional sandstone reservoirs, which are dominated by delta plain, delta front and shore-shallow lake facies, and composed of fine sandstone and siltstone. The reservoir properties are good, with the porosity of 11%–28% (avg. 15.6%).
The Gaotaizi oil reservoir mainly contains tight oil and interlayer shale oil, as well as conventional oil locally. It is dominated by delta front sand body, and composed of fine sandstone, siltstone, argillaceous siltstone, and mudstone. The reservoir is relatively tight, with the porosity of 4,8%–14.0% (avg. 9.2%).
The Gulong oil reservoir mainly contains shale type shale oil. It is dominated by lacustrine to deep lacustrine sand bodies, and composed of shale, mudstone, siltstone, mesolithic limestone, and dolomite. Bedding fractures are well developed; shale and siltstone interlayers are important carriers of shale oil. The shale reservoir is tight, with the porosity of 3%–8% (avg. 5,1%).
The Fuyu and Yangdachengzi oil reservoirs contain tight oil mainly, and conventional oil at some high positions. The reservoir bodies are mainly distributary channels, crevasse splays and sheet sands of large river–shallow water delta sedimentary system, and lithologically composed of medium sandstone, fine sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. The physical properties are poor, with the porosity of 2,1%–14,6% (avg. 10,8%).
Fig 5. Reservoir section of Qingshankou Formation in Yingtai-Gulong area, northern Songliao Basin (k2qn1—first member of Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, k2qn2—second member of Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, k2qn3 — third member of Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation).
Geological Evolution
The Changling fault depression is located in the southern Songliao Basin, Northeast China. This depression lies in the central fault depression zone of Songliao Basin to the south of Nen River and Songhua River. Its overall distribution is in the NNE direction. This area can be divided into five sub-structural units: a western slope zone, eastern slope zone, central depression, northern fault sag, and southern fault sag. The geological evolution of the Changling fault depression has been elaborated in previous studies. The structural evolution history of the Changling Depression can be divided into four stages as detailed below.
1. Basement thermal uplift stage: the paleo-continent split up at the end of the Triassic and began to disassemble inside the continent during the Jurassic. During this geological period, the Eurasian Plate drifted southeastward while the Pacific Plate began to expand and resulted in plate subduction. This sequence triggered mantle upwelling, and the upper mantle and crust extended to form the rift. Mantle materials erupted through the fissure and formed the widespread pyroclastic reservoir.
2. Rifting stage: the previously accumulated heat energy suddenly released and created a crack in the crust. Then, the faulted period began and the Songliao Basin gained the embryonic form of a graben or half-graben morphology. In the meantime, volcanic eruptions, magmatic intrusions and regional metamorphic events occurred through deep fractures. The Upper Jurassic Huoshiling Formation (J3h) and the Lower Cretaceous Shahezi Formation (K1sh) and Yingcheng Formation (K1y) exhibited sedimentary systems such as alluvial fans, flooding plains, pluvial deltas, and fan deltas. A series of NNE faults formed during the deposition of the J3h stratum and caused massive volcanic eruption with andesite and basalt extrusions. During the deposition of K1sh, construction of the Changling depression was controlled by boundary faults. A set of dark mudstone with coal seams formed the lacustrine source rocks of the K1y and K1sh strata. The rising rift, intense fault activity and rapid tectonic subsidence resulted in the deepening and expansion of the basin. The isolated basins began to connect during the transgressive period. The main stratum deposited was K1d, and the sedimentary environment was similar to that during the early rifting stage.
3. Depression stage: the basin entered a depression stage when the crust achieved differential settlement. Volcanic activity dissipated and the depression achieved a uniform sedimentary setting. Widespread lakes appeared in the depression alongside a range of depositional systems. A full combination of spatial-deposition systems developed from the land to the lacustrine area including alluvial fans, flooding plains, shallow lacustrine deltas, and deep water turbidite. The strata included the Quantou Formation (K1q), Qingshankou Formation (K2qn), Yaojia Formation (K2y) and Nenjiang Formation (K2n). During this stage, the paleo heat flow frequently changed because of fault activity.
4. Tectonic inversion stage: during the last phase of the basin evolution, the Japan Sea expanded and the basin continued to exhibit extrusion. Tectonic inversion occurred when the strata were lifted and folded. The remaining lacustrine area shrank but the overall shape of the depression remained similar. The strata included the Upper Cretaceous Sifangtai Formation (K2s) and Mingshui Formation (K2m), with the depositional systems including shallow lacustrine, alluvial fan and flooding plain facies. After the Cretaceous, the lakes almost disappeared and the strata uplifted and descended in slow motion. Alluvial and diluvial deposits have been discovered in this sequence.
Paleogeography
On the plane, conventional oil, tight oil and shale oil coexist orderly but enrich differently. Furthermore, conventional sandstone oil reservoir, tight oil reservoir, interlayer shale oil reservoir and shale type shale oil reservoir coexist in an orderly manner from the edge of the basin to the center of the depression.
During the deposition of the Heidimiao, Sartu, and Putaohua oil reservoirs above the source, the sedimentary systems in the north and west corresponded to different control coverage. The Putaohua oil reservoir has the widest distribution of sand bodies, which are universally observed across northern Songliao Basin, with larger thickness in the west and north than in the east and south. The hydrocarbon accumulation is significantly controlled by sedimentary facies. Taking the Putaohua oil reservoir as an example, distributary channels, natural levee, and crevasse-splay are developed in delta plain, with the sandto-formation ratio higher than 50%, and the dominance of structural oil reservoirs; underwater distributary channels and mouth bars are developed in the delta inner front, with the sand-to-formation ratio of 20%–50%, and the dominance of structural-lithologic oil reservoirs; thin sheet sand is distributed continuously in the delta outer front, with the sand-to-formation ratio less than 20%, and the dominance of lithological oil reservoirs. The structural oil reservoirs, structural-lithologic oil reservoirs, and lithologic oil reservoirs are arranged in a semicircular pattern from the north to south of the basin.
Fig 6. Above-source petroleum distribution in shallow–medium strata in northern Songliao Basin.
During the deposition of the Qingshankou Formation inside the source, under the control of sedimentary systems in the north and west, from the edge to the center of the lake basin, the facies transited from delta plain, inner front and outer front to shore shallow lake, semi-deep lake and deep lake, corresponding to the semicircular distribution of sand bodies. The distribution of petroleum is controlled by both sedimentary facies and reservoir properties. In the delta plain, the reservoir porosity is greater than 12%, and conventional oil reservoirs are dominant. In the delta inner front, tight oil reservoirs are dominant. In the delta outer front and shore shallow lake, interlayer shale oil reservoirs are dominant. In the semi-deep lake and deep lake, shale type shale oil reservoirs are dominant. From the north to the south of the basin, conventional oil, tight oil, interlayer shale oil and shale type shale oil reservoirs are developed in a semicircular pattern.
Fig 7. In-source petroleum distribution in shallow–medium strata in northern Songliao Basin.
During the deposition of the Fuyu and Yangdachengzi oil reservoirs under the source, controlled by six major sedimentary systems around the basin, sand bodies appeared across the basin. The distribution of petroleum was mainly controlled by reservoir physical properties. When the porosity is greater than 12%, conventional oil reservoirs are dominant, mainly at structural highs near the source, such as the Chaoyanggou anticline, the nosing structure in the eastern part of Sanzhao depression, the northern part of the placanticline, and the northern part of Qijia. When the porosity is less than 12%, tight oil reservoirs are dominant, mainly in Sanzhao depression, the southern part of the placanticline, the southern Qijia-Gulong depression, and the Longhupao-Da'an terrace.
Fig 8. Below-source petroleum distribution in shallow–medium strata in northern Songliao Basin.
Heat flow
According to the terrestrial heat flow test, the heat flow of the Songliao Basin arranges from 26,52 to 79,3 mW•m2 and the average value is 71.36 mW•m2, which is greater than the global average value of 66 mW•m2. The distribution characteristics of the Songliao Basin approximately is high in the central and low on the edge of the basin.
Geothermal gradient
On the whole, the central Songliao Basin possesses a high geothermal gradient of 3.0-5.0℃/100m, which reduces outside in turn. The geothermal gradient decreases with depth, and the borehole temperature data in the central basin show that the geothermal gradient is 4.8℃/100m in 1000-2000m;the geothermal gradient is 3.0℃/100m under the 2500m, mainly because the rock density increases, the porosity decreases and thermal conductivity increases with the increase of the depth.
Fig 9. Relations map of the geothermal temperature, geothermal gradient with the depth.
Fig 10. Regional seismic profile across the central part of the Songliao Basin, representing the structure of the basin. (a) Original profile; (b) interpreted profile. See Figure 1b for location. A more detailed discussion of the seismic methodology can be found in the supporting information (Catuneanu, 2006).
Fig 11. Relationship between the uppermost strata of Qingshankou Formation and the overlying T11 unconformity across the northern part of the Central Downwarp. (a) Seismic image of regional seismic profile SL5. (b) Seismic images flattened against the T11 unconformity. (c) The structural interpretation of the flattened images. Lines with arrows represent beds truncated by T11 unconformity. Modified from Song et al. (2014). See Figure 1b for location.
Fig 12. Geometry of the T03 and T02 unconformities in the Songliao Basin, illustrated by (a) seismic and (b) geoseismic profiles across the Central Downwarp zone.
See Figure 1b for location and the supporting information for the seismic methodology.
Zeya–Bureya basin
The Zeya–Bureya basin occupies the northern part of the EAIRB. Unlike the Songliao basin, it was formed during the final stage of the collision between the southern margin of Siberia and the Amurian terrane after the closure of the Mongolia–Okhotsk paleo-ocean. These processes caused the formation of the largest E–Wtrending Yankan–Tukuringra fold belt in the Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. The orogenic movements along this belt produced a northtosouth tilt in the surface topography and led to the development of a series of NE trending basins extending far beyond the emerging Zeya–Bureya basin.
Similar to the three stage evolution of the Songliao basin, the formation of the Zeya–Bureya basin is divided into the rifting (Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous), the platform (Late Cretaceous–Paleocene),and the neotectonic phases (Eocene–Quaternary). Oil and gas shows were found only in the southern part of the basin mostly in Cretaceous argillaceous and carbonate rocks and, rarely, in sandstone successions. The analysis of the crude oil emulsions from a borehole drilled in the vicinity of the Vasilyevka settlement (Belogorsk trough) and the hydrocarbon fractions showed that these oils are naphthenicmethane with a minor aromatic content. The Mesozoic seeps in boreholes from the southern Zeya–Bureya basin have the greatest amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. The shale oil potential of the Cretaceous sediments has been established recently in the southern part of the basin located within the Chinese territory in an E–Wtrending strip between Blagoveshchensk and the Lesser Xing’an Range.
The rifting in the basin led to the formation of the Amur, Zeya–Selemdzha, Ekaterinoslavka, and Arkhara grabens filled with Middle Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. They represent the early rifting stage, which climaxed with the deposition of predominantly alluvial sediments (conglomerates and sandstones) in these grabens at the junction between the Great Xing’an, Turan, Amur–Mamyn, Blagoveshchensk, and Zavitaya–Maikur uplifts.
The Early Cretaceous rifting phase in the Zeya–Bureya basin was characterized by a rock complex of variable lithology, which comprises mafic, intermediate, and felsic effusive rocks and terrigenous rocks of the Itikut and Poyarkovo formations (over 1600 m thick). The volcanic rocks dominating the western and eastern margins of the basin occur as volcanic fields of variable composition (from rhyolitic to basaltic) extending along the Amur River from the Koltsovo settlement (52° N) to Blagoveshchensk and further into the Chinese territory up to Bei’an city. The volcanic successions in these zones are controlled by the Lower Zeya and DeduDaan faults oriented nearly N–S and NE and represent a large regional volcanic structure—the Upper Amur volcanic belt.
Intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks are widely distributed at the eastern margin of the Zeya–Bureya basin, where they form a continuous volcanic belt extending for 400 km in a nearly N–S direction from the upper reaches of the Selemdzha River to the Bureya River’s mouth and further into the Chinese territory up to the Sungari River [5, 33]. This Turan volcanic belt is controlled by the West Turan and Mudanjiang fault systems.
The recent geochronological data indicate that the volcanic rocks of the Itikut and Poyarkovo formations were formed by two magmatic events at 119–115 Ma and 108–105 Ma that took place at the eastern margin of Eurasia.
Fig 13. Tectonic zonation of the Zeya–Bureya basin.
1-The boundaries of the Zeya–Bureya basin with the Lower Zeya and Amur–Zeya subbasins; 2-the boundaries of negative (a) and positive (b) III order elements in the Amur⎯Zeya (Ushumun) and Lower Zeya depression zones (II order); 3, 4-boundaries of IVorder troughs and uplifts; 5-faults: XB-Xunhe–Bira, LZ-Lower Zeya, MA-Middle Amur, NS-Nenjiang–Selemdzha, NnS-Ninni-Sagayan, WT-West Turan; 6-boundary of the Russian Federation; 7-MTS profiles: K⎯R-Krasnoye–Roshchino, BL⎯BR-Blagoveshchensk–Birakan, K⎯N-Korfovo–Novosergeevka. III-order depressions: I—Amur; II—Zeya–Selemdzha; III—Ekaterinoslavka; IV—Arkhara. III-order positive elements: V—Zavitaya⎯Maikur; VI—Turan; VII—Tygda.
The syn-rift sequence of terrigenous and volcanic rocks is confined within the Zeya⎯Selemdzha, Ekaterinoslavka, and Arkhara grabens, which trend to the south and were recently studied by Chinese geologists along the right bank of the Amur River. The Sunwu–Jiayin basin was delineated within a zone trending E⎯W from Blagoveshchensk to the Lesser Xing’an across three N–S depressions (from west to east): the Sunwu, Zhanhe, and Jiayin separated by the Maolanhe and Furao uplifts. These depressions were formed during the Berriasian and Barremian in response to the NE extension along the strike-slip faults and the deposition of sedimentary and felsic volcanic rocks (over 1500 m thick) of the Ningyangkun Formation.
During the Aptian, these grabens were filled with coarse clastic and alluvialdeluvial sediments (from 150 to 1700 m) of the Taoqihe Formation containing coals seams at its top. The deposition of this formation occurred during a subsidence phase, which was accompanied by the basin’s broadening, and ceased in the Albian⎯Cenomanian with the tectonic inversion and uplifting of the basin.
The areal extent of these basins towards the south (including the volcanics) inferred from the geological maps confidently shows that the EAIRB represented a single system during the rift phase (the Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous). This is confirmed by the general north to south tilt of the surface and corroborated by the same drainage direction of the main rivers: the paleo-Amur, paleo-Zeya, and paleo-Zavitaya .
Platform phase. The Late Cretaceous–Paleocene evolution of the Zeya–Bureya basin is associated with the formation of suprarift depressions and rift-bounding or intrarift uplifts. At that time, the deposition occurred primarily within the depressions in an alluvial plain to lacustrine system, which was onlapped over the outer Great Xing’an and Turan ranges and a series of the inner gentle uplifts (the Amur–Mamyn, Blagoveshchensk, and Zavitaya–Maikur hummocky upland plains). This stage climaxed with the deposition of the Turonian–Campanian, Maastrichtian, and Paleocene sequences.
The initial transformation of the Amur, Zeya⎯Selemdzha, Ekaterinoslavka, and Arkhara rifted structures during the Turonian–Campanian times was caused by the contraction and regression of the sedimentary basin accompanied by low subsidence rates (2–18 m/Myr) and intensified movements on the adjacent mountain belts. This stage corresponds to the deposition of the Zavitaya Formation (over 500 m) composed of sandstones, siltstones, shales, gravels, and conglomerates. It is characterized by the predominance of dark grey and grey shales and siltstones, the presence of variegated rocks at the top, abundant carbonate rocks and freshwater faunas, and a high degree of rounding and sorting of the material. Such characteristics are also typical of the Young’ancun and Taipinglinchang formations deposited within the Sunwu–Jiayin and Songliao basins.
The middle platform phase (Maastrichtian) was marked by an increase in the extent of the sedimentation to that of the rifting phase and accelerated subsidence (from 7 to 37 m/Myr), which occurred in the inner positive structures. The central part of the basin is characterized by terrigenous deposition (the over 300 mthick Tsagayan Formation). It consists of sandstones at the base and mostly shales with tuff intercalations at the top. The Maastrichtian sediments in the foothills of the Lesser Xing’an Range comprise a dinosaur-bearing horizon, which is recognized as the Yuliangze Formation in the Sunwu–Jiayin and Songliao basins.
At the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, the late platform phase was marked by a notable change in the geodynamic setting due the compressional stress induced by the Pacific segment. The strata deposited during this interval were distinguished as the Darmakan Formation consisting of sand, gravel, and pebbles at the base (10–100 m) and alternating sand, silt, shale, and brown coal with tuff intercalations (10–80 m) at the top. On the right bank of the Amur River, the upper strata (the Maastrichtian and Danian) display lithological complexities similar to those of the Furao and Wuyun formations.
Considering the dynamic framework of the late platform phase, it is remarkable that the basin’s subsidence rate changed from over 40 m/Myr at the beginning of this stage (Cretaceous) to 3.3–11.3 m/Myr at the end (Paleocene).
Compared to the rifting phase, the platform phase of the Zeya–Bureya and Songliao basins is characterized by a dramatic decrease in the subsidence rate and differentiation within the plain and platform areas and the preservation of the paleodrainage network. The Late Cretaceous channel and floodplain successions clearly track the paleoriver valleys, i.e., the paleo-Amur in the Amur depression and the paleo-Zeya and paleoZavitaya in the Zeya⎯Selemdzha and Ekaterinoslavka depressions, which indicates the relative stability of the river systems.
The present day morphology of the Zeya–Bureya basin is the result of the neotectonic activity in the region. Major changes include the development of E–W and NWtrending structures, which strongly affected the general N–S trend of the Mesozoic tectonic features formed by compressional deformation from the southeast. The major structures include the Sunwu–Xing’an, Amur–Mamyn, and Umlekan uplifts. The first structure separated the Zeya–Bureya and Songliao basins, the second structure divided the Zeya–Bureya basin into the Lower Zeya and Amur⎯Zeya subbasins, and the third structure separated the Amur⎯Zeya subbasin from the Middle Zeya trough. These events contributed to the changes in the hydrological regime of the Amur basin, which included the cessation of the surface water discharge to the Songliao basin and the flooding in the Zeya–Bureya plain that continued until the Amur River broke through the Lesser Xing’an in the Late Miocene.
The neotectonic phase can be divided into the Eocene–Oligocene, the Miocene, the Pliocene–Eopleistocene, and the Pleistocene–Holocene stages. In the Raichikhinsk and Mukhinka periods, the first stage was dominated by contractional events, which led to the basin’s rapid regression and the deposition of sand, gravel, and shale successions (10–40 m) in local structures. The extension of the basin in the Oligocene commenced with the increase in the sedimentation and the development of sand successions. This geodynamic setting persisted through the Miocene and the Plio–Eopleistocene stages. This time was marked by the development of lacustrine boggy depositional environments and the deposition of the sandy shale coal bearing sediments (up to 90 m) of the Buzula Formation and the sandy-gravel sequence (up to 100 m) of the Sazanka and Belogorsk formations. The Middle Pleistocene–Holocene was marked by the uplifting of the Zeya–Bureya plain, the river’s incision, and the accretion of five terraces above the flood plain with the recued or normal thickness of the alluvial cover. The amplitude of thickness uplifting on the Zeya–Bureya plain was 100–150 m during the post-Belogorsk time.
Data source: Whole petroleum system and hydrocarbon accumulation model in shallow and medium strata in northern Songliao Basin, NE China, 2023. ZHANG He, WANG Xiaojun, JIA Chengzao, LI Junhui, MENG Qi’an, JIANG Lin, WANG Yongzhuo,BAI Xuefeng, ZHENG Qiang.
Depositional environment variations and organic matter accumulation of the first member of the Qingshankou formation in the southern Songliao Basin, China, 2023. Yan Ma, Feng Jinlai
3D-Basin Modeling of the Changling Depression, NE China: Exploring Petroleum Evolution in Deep Tight Sandstone Reservoirs, 2019. Jinliang Zhang, Jiaqi Guo, Yang Li, Zhongqiang Sun
Feasibility Evaluation of EGS Project in the Xujiaweizi Area: Potential Site in Songliao Basin, Northeastern China, 2015. Yanjun Zhang, Liagliang Guo, Zhengwei Li, Ziwang Yu.
Post-rift Tectonic History of the Songliao Basin, NE China: Cooling Events and Post-rift Unconformities Driven by Orogenic Pulses From Plate Boundaries, 2017. Ying Song, Andrei Stepashko, Keyu Liu, Qingkun He, Chuanbo Shen, Bingjie Shi, Jianye Ren
Evolution and deep structure of the Zeya-Bureya and Songliao sedimentary
basins (East Asia), 2013. A. P. Sorokina, Yu. F. Malyshev, V. B. Kaplun, A. T. Sorokina, T. V. Artemenko
Lithofacies and Source Rock Quality of Organic-Rich Shales in the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, Songliao Basin, NE China, 2022. Yi Cai , Rukai Zhu, Zhong Luo, Songtao Wu, Tianshu Zhang, Chang Liu, Jingya Zhang, Yongchao Wang, Siwei Meng, Huajian Wang, Qian Zhang
Provenance, Sedimentary Environment, Tectonic Setting, and Uranium Mineralization Implications of the Yaojia Formation, SW Songliao Basin, NE China, 2023. Mengya Chen, Fengjun Nie, Fei Xia, Zhaobin Yan, Dongguang Yang
Depositional characteristics and evolution of the shallow water deltaic channel sand bodies in Fuyu oil layer of central downwarp zone of Songliao Basin, NE China, 2019. Qingjie Deng, Mingyi Hu, Zhonggui Hu.
Present temperature field characterization and geothermal resource assessment in the Harbin Area, North east China, 2019. Yizuo Shi, GuangzhengJiang, Xinyong Zhang, Zhe Yuan, Zhuting Wang, Qianfeng Qiu, Shengbiao Hu
Следующий Бассейн: Minhe